Liberty in the Curriculum

Liberty Studies Course

2010-08-09T14:51:00.001-07:00

This blog will now be used for my course "Liberty Studies" being offered in the fall of 2010.

Locke and the State of Nature

2009-09-03T09:45:00.000-07:00

John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, Book II, Chapter II, section 4

"To understand political power right, and derive it from its original, we must consider what state all men are naturally in, and that is, a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of their possessions and persons, as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature; without asking leave, or depending upon the will of any other man."

Accessed from http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/763 on 2009-09-03

Hobbes on Civil Disobedience?

2009-08-21T13:02:00.000-07:00

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, Part I, Chapter XIV

A covenant to accuse oneself, without assurance of pardon, is
likewise invalid. For in the condition of nature, where every man
is judge, there is no place for accusation: and in the civil state,
the accusation is followed with punishment; which being force, a man is not obliged not to resist. ... Also accusations upon torture, are not to be reputed as testimonies. For torture is to be used but as means of conjecture, and light, in the further examination, and search of truth: and what is in that case confessed, tendeth to the ease of him that is tortured; not to the informing of the torturers: and therefore ought not to have the credit of a sufficient testimony: for whether he deliver himself by true, or false accusation, he does it by the right of preserving his own life.

Accessed from http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/585 on 2009-08-21

Hobbes on Rights and Liberty

2009-08-18T13:58:00.000-07:00

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, Part I, Chapter XIV

The right of nature, which writers commonly call jus naturale, is
the liberty each man hath, to use his own power, as he will himself, for the preservation of his own nature; that is to say, of his own life; and consequently, of doing any thing, which in his own judgment, and reason, he shall conceive to be the aptest means thereunto.

By liberty, is understood, according to the proper signification of the word, the absence of external impediments: which
impediments, may oft take away part of a man’s power to do what he would; but cannot hinder him from using the power left him, according as his judgment, and reason shall dictate to him.

Source: Online Library of Liberty, Liberty Fund, Inc.

Locke on Liberty

2009-08-14T09:50:00.000-07:00

Second Treatise, Book II, Chapter IV, Section 22:

The natural liberty of man is to be free from any superior power on earth, and not to be under the will or legislative authority of man, but to have only the law of nature for his rule. The liberty of man, in society, is to be under no other legislative power, but that established, by consent, in the commonwealth; nor under the dominion of any will, or restraint of any law, but what that legislative shall enact, according to the trust put in it. Freedom then is not what sir Robert Filmer tells us, O, A. 55. “a liberty for every one to do what he lists, to live as he pleases, and not to be tied by any laws:” but freedom of men under government is, to have a standing rule to live by, common to every one of that society, and made by the legislative power erected in it; a liberty to follow my own will in all things, where the rule prescribes not; and not to be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, arbitrary will of another man: as freedom of nature is, to be under no other restraint but the law of nature.

Taken from Online Library of Liberty, Liberty Fund, Inc.

Fee Man's Library

2009-08-11T19:27:00.000-07:00

*
The complete Free Man's Library, by Henry Hazlitt, can now be found on the mises.org website. The exact address for the book is http://mises.org/books/freemanslibrary.pdf

8

Bohm-Bawerk, Eugen von

2009-03-05T15:15:00.000-08:00

Bohm-Bawerk, Eugen von. The Positive Theory of Capital. 1888. (Macmillan. 1891.) 428 pp.

One of the most brilliant and original contributions - if not the most brilliant and original - ever made to the theory of capital and interest. Bohm-Bawerk, declares the Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, "was at a very early age one of the first to accept the teaching of Karl Menger, giving all his powers to the development and the defense of the subjective theory of value: it is to him that both the success and the formulation og the theory are largely due." According to Frank W. Taussig, The Positive Theory of Capital "is a landmark in the development of thought. As an intellectual performance, there are few books on economics in any language that can be ranked with it. One may not agree with all that is said, but the book bears the unmistakable impression of a great mind."

Bohm-Bawerk, Eugen von

2009-03-03T13:29:00.000-08:00

Bohm-Bawerk, Eugen von. Karl Marx and the Close of His System. 1896, etc. London: Unwin. 221 pp.

Until the appearance of Socialism by Ludwig von Mises (q.v.), this was by far the best criticism of the economics of Karl Marx. For the points that it covers - chiefly the fallacies of the Marxian labor theory of value - it is still superb, unanswerable, and irreplaceable.

Blum, Walter, and Kalven, Harvey, Jr.

2009-03-03T13:24:00.000-08:00

Blum, Walter, and Kalven, Harvey, Jr. The Uneasy Case for Progressive Taxation. University of Chicago Press. 1953. 107 pp.

"Progressive-tax theory has been due for an overhauling, and the authors do a highly competent job. ... The work is distinguished by penetrating analysis, comprehensive coverage of sources, and excellent documentation ... Rates high honors in the field." - Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.

Berlin, Isaiah

2009-03-02T15:37:00.000-08:00

Berlin, Isaiah. Historical Inevitability. Oxford University Press. 1954. 79 pp.

The main purpose of this lecture is to consider a tendency which has, in the West, been growing since the eighteenth century, to regard human history as the product of impersonal "forces" obeying "inexorable" laws; with the implied consequence that individual human beings are seldom responsible for bringing about situations for which they are commonly praised or blamed, since the real culprit is "the historical process" itself - which individuals can do little to influence. "A magnificent assertion of the reality of human freedom, of the role of free choice in history." - London Economist.

Berger-Perrin, Rene

2009-03-02T15:27:00.000-08:00

Berger-Perrin, Rene. Vitalite Liberale. Paris: Editions SEDIF. 1953. 93 pp.

M. Berger-Perrin is Secretary General of L'Association de l'Enterprise a Capital Personnel. "After a quarter of a century of the predominance of authoritarian and collectivist ideas," he writes, "liberal thought today is reappearing with increased force and profundity." To prove this he has put together a little anthology of excerpts from more than fifty writers - French, English, American, German, Norwegian, Swiss, Dutch, mexican, etc. These include not only economists, but sociologists, hostorians, journalists, and businessmen.

Library of Congress

2007-11-25T09:25:00.000-08:00

Here is something that may help those with a research question. It is possible to use the Library of Congress website to ask a librarian reference questions at http://www.loc.gov/rr/askalib/

Given that it takes 5 days for a response, you may wish to check the LOC's faq page for researchers first at http://www.loc.gov/rr/res-faq.html

Bentley, Elizabeth

2007-03-11T20:47:00.000-07:00

Bentley, Elizabeth. Out of Bondage. Devin-Adair. 1951. 311 pp.

In this autobiographical account Miss Bentley, an American College girl, describes how she entered the Communist party, took part in its secret underground for ten years, and later collaborated with the Federal Bureau of Investigation after she left the party. Although her story on its appearance was ridiculed by some reviewers as "schoolgirlish" and "phoney," many of her most startling charges have been confirmed by later investigation.

Point to Ponder

2007-03-04T07:34:00.000-08:00

*
"Liberty is about us as social beings, and so it is a social concept."

Charles Fried, Modern Liberty, 2007 p. 76.

BK: Think about this - (a) Many advocates of liberty focus on egoism and individualism as the foundation of liberty. Fried does as well by grounding liberty in our individual autonomy. The claim that liberty is a social concept is debatable. (b) This debate is both political and metaphysical - 1. Is the nature of my liberty, as an ethical restraint on you, and the state, socially determined? 2. Is the source of our concept of liberty, so that it is part of our language that we can talk about, formed through social interaction.

Could Crusoe, without Friday, be said to have any liberty? Would Friday, without Crusoe, ever have formed the idea of liberty?

Bentham, Jeremy

2007-02-28T13:32:00.000-08:00

Bentham, Jeremy. Works. Edited by John Bowring. 1838-1843. Edinburgh: Tait. 11 vols.

"A considerable amount of Bentham is still worthy of study. He may be considered as the philosophic founder of modern British democracy. He held that the State exists to promote the individual happiness of the citizens who compose it and that ministers are the servants of the electors. For our purposes, the more important works are: (1) A Fragment on Government (1776), (2) Defense of Usury (1787), (3) An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789). As a Utilitarian, an Individualist, and a reformer of laws and institutions, he deserves more attention than he now receives. Bentham is, like Locke, influential, but known chiefly through the work of his pupils and disciples." - PI.

Bentham, Jeremy, Defense of Usury. 1787. Many editions. 232pp.

Jeremy Bentham whose reputation has hitherto been that of a moralist, a founder of Utilitarianism, a logician, a great political and legal philosopher and reformer, was also, it is now being discovered, an outstanding economist. Until very recent years, by far the greater part of Bentham's economic work was completely unknown - locked up in chaotic and illegible manuscripts. The Royal Economic Society commissioned Dr. W. Stark to make a closer scrutiny of this material, which in 1952 was published in three volumes under the title Jeremy Bentham's Economic Writings (London: Allen and Unwin).

The Defense of Usury, however, which is included in these volumes, was published in 1787 and acquired immediate celebrity. Bentham was a great admirer of Adam Smith, whom he called "the father of political economy" and a writer of consummate genius." But he was not an uncritical admirer, and in the Defense of Usury, which he published eleven years after the appearance of The Wealth of Nations, he ventured to take the master to task for his inconsistency in approving so-called anti-usury laws while opposing government price-fixing in practically every other field.

"The Liberty of Bargaining in money matters," wrote Bentham, is "a species of liberty which has never yet found an advocate." Yet "fixing the rate of interest, being a coercive measure, and an exception to the general rule in favor of the enforcement of contracts, it lies upon the advocates of the measure to produce reasons for it." Examining the reasons that had been offered, Bentham rejected them as invalid, and proceeded to explain the positive "mischiefs" done by the anti-usury laws. He concluded that there is "no more reason for fixing the price of the use of money than the price of goods."

Notable Quote: Adam Smith

2007-02-11T20:07:00.000-08:00

"It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantage" (Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book I, Chapter ii, Section 2).

Benn, Sir Ernest

2007-02-06T13:33:00.000-08:00

Benn, Sir Ernest. Confessions of a Capitalist. London: Hutchinson. 1925. 287 pp.

"A telling defense of individual initiative." - London Financial News. "A book which is unique in economic literature. Sir Ernest's pen is as vivid as his mind is fearless and independent. ... He tells us the most intimate details of his business. ... The whole is accompanied by a running line of argument on the fundamental problems of economics, which is set out so skillfully as to be as entertaining and arresting as the autobiographical details." - Lionel Robbins.

The Return to Laisser Faire. London: Ernest Benn. 1928. 221 pp.

An Argument against the extension of governmental activity and interference in England and a plea for a return to individualism. Public aid to housing and the growing burden of bureaucracy are special targets. Even reviewers hostile to the author's thesis paid tribute to "the entertaining style, the caustic wit, the arresting illustration."

The State the Enemy. London: Ernest Benn. 1953. 175 pp.

The author reviews the British experiment in state intervention and socialism all the way from Lloyd George, who inherited a budget of L100 million, to Attlee, who left it at L4,000 million, and sums up the record of failure: "Nationalization has not brought the expected smile to the face of the worker, full employment has not encouraged production, the management of money has not improved its quality; in fact, all the anticipations of the original Fabian Essays, the bases of modern Socialism, have proved disappointing, if not entirely fallacious." The style is lively, witty and aphoristic.

Liberty of Man in Society

2007-01-28T17:19:00.000-08:00

"The Liberty of Man, in Society, is to be under no other Legislative Power, but that established, by consent, in the Common-wealth, nor under the Dominion of any Will, or Restraint of any Law, but what the Legislative shall enact, according to the Trust put in it" (Bk II, Chap IV, Sec 22).

BK: Note there is no requirement that the Legislative enact only that which is consistent with Natural Liberty. The requirement here is that the legislative power is established by consent and is constrained by the "Trust" placed in it, presumably to keep the terms of the agreement.

Natural Liberty

2007-01-27T11:22:00.000-08:00

"The Natural Liberty of Man is to be free from any Superior Power on Earth, and not to be under the Will or Legislative Authority of Man, but to have only the Law of Nature for his Rule."

Locke, The Second Treatise of Government, Bk. II, Chap IV, Sec 22.

BK: I just want to put this up for pondering for a day because I am not sure how well it fits with, or relates to, what follows in this chapter.

Benham, Frederic, and Boddy, F.M.

2007-01-23T05:25:00.000-08:00

Benham, Frederic, and Boddy, F.M. Principles of Economics. Piman. 1947.

A textbook intended for an introductory course, to provide "the simple tools of modern economic analysis." Considerable attention is also given to the effects of government intervention upon a capitalistic system.

Modern Liberty

2007-01-10T17:56:00.000-08:00

Those considering whether to purchase Charles Fried's new book may find this review in the New York Times interesting. The publisher's summary can be found here.

I have just purchased the book and will enter my two cents after I have read it.

Charles Fried, Modern Liberty and the Limits of Government, W.W. Norton & Company, 2007, 217 pp.

Benda, Julien

2007-01-07T20:38:00.000-08:00

Benda, Julien. The Treason of the Intellectuals. Morrow. 1928. 244 pp.

This celebrated book first appeared in France under the title La Trahison des clercs. "That the intellectuals of the world have sold out to utilitarianism, leaving their proper devotion to truth and humanity, is the theme of Julien Benda's scorching analysis of the current leaders of thought. By taking on political passions, the intellectuals have played the game of the state, espoused war and conflict and lost that universalism which is their true reason for existence." - World Tomorrow.

Greatly needed today is a study with a title and theme similar to Benda's, which would not only cover developments in the twenty-five years since his book appeared, and describe the intellectual and sometimes quite literal treachery of some present-day physical scientists, but would cover the whole drift of our literateurs and other intellectual leaders over the last three-quarters of a century into a sentimental socialism - including Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells, and the Webbs in England, Anatole France in France, and the corresponding figures in Germany and America. It would be important to analyze not merely individual figures but the mob psychology of our modern intellectuals and the ease with which they were blown about by the fashionable winds of doctrine.

BK: I do not like this type of critique. While individuals can sell out, it has been my experience that intellectuals believe what they believe to be true or right. No one sold out to utilitarianism anymore than they sold out to Kantianism. Furthermore, to claim someone believes in something simply because it is fashionable is to avoid the issue by calling someone a simpleton. This type of critique is not a critique at all. It assumes what needs to be proven - here that socialism is untenable. Furthermore, it assumes that the theory is so wrong, the only way to explain intellectual support is by nuanced references to payoffs and shallowness of character. The astute reader will notice that both of these claims are being levied against libertarian intellectuals today.

Beck, James Montgomery

2007-01-03T19:12:00.000-08:00

Beck, James Montgomery. Our Wonderland of Bureaucracy. Macmillan. 1933. 290 pp.

A study, by a former Solicitor General of the United States, of the growth of bureaucracy in the federal government, and its destructive effect upon the Constitution.

Beaulieu, P. Leroy

2006-12-13T20:25:00.000-08:00

Beaulieu, P. Leroy. Collectivism. London: Murray. 1908. 343 pp.

"An important analysis and criticism of Collectivism. That progress has always followed the substitution of individual ownership for collective ownership is clearly brought out. The relatively simple example of collective ownership in land is first dealt with and industrial collectivism is then examined. Schaffle's Quintessence of Socialism is taken as the only available source of information on the practical application of Collectivism, and yet Leroy Beaulieu succeeds in proving its inherent incapability of performing its duties mainly by quotations from the book itself.: - PI.

Baudin, Louis

2006-12-10T13:25:00.000-08:00

Baudin, Louis. Les Incas du Perou. Paris: Librairie de Medicis. 1947. 188 pp.

A shorter study of the same subject that professor Baudin covered so thoroughly in his L'Empire Socialist des Incas, in 1928. When the Spaniards overcame the Incas of Peru they found that a socialist society had existed there in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries more totalitarian than perhaps any other known to history. Baudin analyzes this society and shows the consequences of that total socialization, many of which have remained with the native Indian population to the present day - the complete suppression of family sentiment, the immobilization of the individual, the disappearance of initiative and foresight, the complete petrification of life, the creation of a slave mentality. The book is written with great lucidity and vigor. Professor Baudin has a final chapter discussing the lessons of the empire of the Incas for our own time.

Liberty Studies Primer

2006-12-08T11:14:00.000-08:00

Those desiring an overview of the literature on liberty should pick up a copy of The Libertarian Reader edited by David Boaz (The Free Press: New York, 1997, 458 pp.).

This book contains over sixty excerpts from libertarian and classical liberal authors and would make a wonderful textbook for a class on liberty. For further reading, be sure to check out Tom Palmer's essay "The Literature of Liberty" at the end of the book. His essay is the reason I went out and found Henry Hazlitt's The Free Man's Library.

Wiki Smarts

2006-12-05T13:45:00.000-08:00

I argued a little while ago that Wikipedia, even if flawed, presents a great educational opportunity. At the very least professors could assign students entries and have them search for any possible errors. This assignment, though, may not be as easy, or as fruitful, as I originally thought.

According to the Chronicle of Higher Education, "The Wired Campus: Right on, Wikipedia" (December 8, 2006) Thomas Chesney at the University of Nottingham has done studies that "suggests that the accuracy of Wikipedia is high."

If this is true, then it both corraborates, and follows from, the thesis of James Surowiecki's book The Wisdom of Crowds, ( Anchor Books: New York, 2004, 306 pp.)

As Surowiecki tells us, there is a "simple, but powerful, truth that is at the heart of this book: under the right circumstances, groups are remarkably intelligent, and are often smarter than the smartest people in them" (p. xiii).

Just a thought.

BK

Baudin, Louis

2006-12-04T19:50:00.000-08:00

Baudin, Louis. L'Aube d'un Nouveau Liberalisme. Paris: Librairie de Medicis. 1953. 220 pp.

An acute, scholarly, documented, but extremely readable account of "the dawn of a new liberalism" - a liberalism resting economically on faith in the free market and politically on individual freedom within a proper framework of law and morals. On pages 144 to 150 the author presents a useful survey of the literature of "neo-liberalism" and mentions several French-language works not included in the present bibliography.

What is Liberty Studies?

2006-11-30T20:37:00.000-08:00

*
Liberty Studies is an inter-disciplinary field of inquiry dedicated to understanding the foundations, meanings, and implications of what it is to be free. It poses the fundamental question of "What can I do with my life?" It questions the power of institutions and the legitimacy of the constraints they impose. It studies the costs and benefits of free human interaction and examines the need of naturally social animals to be left alone.

Bastiat, Frederic

2006-11-29T11:18:00.000-08:00

Bastiat, Frederic. The Law. 1850. Irvington, NY.: Foundation for Economic Education. 1950. 75 pp.

A separate Publication of a new translation (by Dean Russell) of one of Bastiat's most famous pamphlets. "Law," Bastiat maintains, "is solely the organization of the individual right of self-defense which existed before law was formalized. Law is justice." But the law has been perverted, and applied to annihilating the justice it was supposed to maintain. Protectionism, socialism and communism are all forms of legal plunder.

BK: This book is currently online and can be found in its entirety in the Freedom Library on the Foundation for Economic Education's website. This is the same translation Hazlitt refers to but with a new foreward by Walter Williams, an introduction by the President of FEE, Richard Ebeling, and an afterword by the editor of the Freeman, Sheldon Richman.

Bastiat, Frederic

2006-11-27T19:44:00.000-08:00

Bastiat, Frederic. Economic Sophisms. 1843-1850. Many editions. 2 vols. 548 pp. 564 pp.

"Bastiat, a friend of Cobden, was opposed to all descriptions of public waste and government interference. Both by his writings and by his action as a politician, he waged inceasing war against Bureaucracy, Protection and Socialism. The book cited above gained a great reputation; it is very witty and written in an attractive style. The Petition of the Candlemakers against the sun, which interfered with their industry, is well known. Each short study attacks some economic error, or pleads for the removal of some restrictions. The truth to be brought out is often enforced by dialogue or some other lively method. Bastiat was an optimist. His view was that the various human impulses and activities would, under free competition in an honest and peaceful government, result in steady progress and increasing prosperity and happiness. This was the theme of his Harmonies Economiques, of which only the first volume appeared owing to his untimely death.
"His complete works with introductory biography were published in France in 1855 shortly after his death. They include many brilliant pamphlets and articles against the fallacies of State Socialism and Communism, which were rampart in Paris in the last years of Bastiat's life." - PI.
"In Sophismes Economiques we have the completest and most effective, the wisest and wittiest exposure of protectionism and its principles, reasonings, consequences which exists in any language. Bastiat was the opponent of socialism. In this respect also he had no equal among the economists of France." - Encyclopedia Americana.

BK: I have this two volume set and it is a joy to read.

Baster, A.S.J.

2006-11-18T22:18:00.000-08:00

Baster, A.S.J. The Little Less. London: Methuen. 1947. 161 pp.

A witty and well-informed little book on " the political economy of restrictionism." It consists mainly of a satiric history of the "lunatic years" in Great Britain between 1919 and 1939, when various ingenious devices were introduced by which everybody expected to get a little more for producing a little less. The story is told under the separate chapter headings of Producing Less, Growing Less, Working Less, Transporting Less, and Trading Less. There are also chapters on The Politics of Restrictionism and The Political Economy of Freedom.

Bastable, C.F.

2006-11-15T21:27:00.000-08:00

Bastable, C.F. The Theory of International Trade. 1897, etc. Macmillan. 197 pp.

This short book, which first appeared in 1897, long held the field as the standard exposition of the "classical" theory of foreign trade and policy. It is balanced, vigorous and lucid, and uncompromisingly defends freedom of trade. Bastable's "principle conclusion as to conduct" is that "Governments in their dealings with foreign trade should be guided by the much-vilified maxim of laissez faire. To avoid misinterpretation, let it be remembered that the precept rests on no theory of abstract right, or vague sentiment of cosmopolitanism, but on the well-founded belief that national interests are thereby advanced, and that even if we benefit others by an enlightened policy, we are ourselves richly rewarded."

BK: Sounds interesting, especially if it was the standard of its day. Even more interesting is the fact that many defenders of the free market find it necessary to discredit other advocates of the free market who do not have the same foundational beliefs. Open discourse will involve disagreement. However, it is one thing to argue a counter point and another simply to brush off other theories as abstract or vague. Ad Hominem is a falacy no matter who commits it.

Barber, Thomas H.

2006-11-13T18:01:00.000-08:00

Barber, Thomas H. Where We Are At. Scribner's. 1950. 250 pp.

The author, who has been a lawyer, city official, and cowpuncher, describes his book as "a guide for enlightened conservatives." He urges removal of all price-fixing, subsidies and special group privileges and return to a free market economy.

BK: I've never read anything by a cowpuncher.

Baker, John R.

2006-11-12T19:43:00.000-08:00

Baker, John R. Science and the Planned State. Macmillan. 1945. 120 pp.

Dr. Baker, a lecturer in zoology at Oxford University, contends that central planning and direction of scientific research do more to inhibit than to promote the growth of true scientific knowledge and discovery.

Bailward, W.A.

2006-11-10T14:11:00.000-08:00

Bailward, W.A. The Slippery Slope and Other Papers. London: Murray. 1920. 236 pp.

"A collection of essays and articles written over a period of twenty years during which the author was engaged in Poor Law and charitable administration. By 'the slippery slope' is meant the path of least resistance in dealing with social problems, that is, the path of pauperism and Socialism." - PI.

Bailward, W.A. and Loch, C.S. Old Age Pensions. 1903.

"A well-argued case against old age pensions. Its interest is chiefly historical, but it might well be read by students interested in the history of ideas." - PI.

Bagehot, Walter

2006-11-06T20:47:00.000-08:00

Bagehot, Walter. The English Constitution. 1867. Oxford University Press. 1933. 312 pp.

This classic work was the first to make clear the real nature of the British constitution in its modern development. That constitution is not based, as Montesque thought, on the "separation of powers," but, on the contrary, on "the close union, the nearly complete fusion, of the executive and legislative powers." In this respect Bagehot contrasted the British and American constitutions to the disadvantage of the latter. As the preservation of ordered liberty depends upon the existence of a sound political system, Bagehot's book deserves the close study of Americans as well as Englishmen. He was a brilliant stylist as well as a brilliant thinker.

Bagehot, Walter. Economic Studies. 1880. Stanford Calif.: Academic Reports. 1953. 236 pp.

The essays in this book mainly elaborate classical English laissez-faire economics. They deal with Adam Smith, Malthus, Ricardo, "the late Mr. Mill," and such subjects as "The Postulates of English Political Economy" and "The Growth of Capital." "Bagehot, Editor of The Economist, was one on the finest thinkers and writers of his time. He was always an advocate of individual
and commercial freedom. His best known books are on the English Constitution and Lombard Street." - PI.

Bagehot, Walter (FML)

2006-11-04T23:29:00.000-08:00

Bagehot, Walter. Physics and Politics. 1869. Several editions. (Knopf. 1948.) 230 pp.

An original and penetrating study of the impact of science and invention on politics, and of political institutions on knowledge. Bagehot shows how in the early history of mankind blind obedience to usage and custom seemed necessary to social cohesion and survival, but after the transition from the principle of status to that of contract was finally achieved, it was liberty that ensured the greatest social strength and progress. "As soon as governments by discussion have become strong enough to secure a stable existence, and as soon as they have broken the fixed rule of old custom, and have awakened the dormant inventiveness of men, then, for the first time, almost every part of human nature begins to spring forward. ... And this is the true reason of all those panegyrics on liberty which are often so measured in expression but are in essence so true to life and nature. Liberty is the strengthening and developing power."

Backman, Jules (FML)

2006-11-02T20:40:00.000-08:00

Backman, Jules. Wages and Prices. Irvington, N.Y.: Foundation for Economic Education. 1947. 88pp.

An excellent statistical reference work on the levels and relationships of wages, prices, costs and profits in recent years. The author points out how these facts are ignored or misread by those who are trying to fix or change wages and prices by force. The evils of price control, labor monopolies and currency inflation are dealt with incidentally.

BK: Stay tuned for Walter Bagehot.

Austin, Bertram H., and Lloyd, W.F. (FML)

2006-10-31T20:49:00.000-08:00

Austin, Bertram H., and Lloyd, W.F. The Secret of High Wages. Dodd. 1926. 124 pp.

In 1925, at a time of great industrial depression in Britain, the authors, two English engineers, came to the United States in an effort to discover the secret of our unprecedented prosperity. Their inquiry was mainly concerned with the causes of high wages in industry combined with low cost of production. The book was originally a confidential report, but was published following a suggestion from the City Editor of the London Times.

Wikipedia in the Classroom

2006-10-24T20:09:00.000-07:00

To the chagrin of many a professor and librarian alike, it is now almost common knowledge that students primarily use internet search engines for their research projects. The problem, of course, is that students often do not take the time to check their sources. I've had more than one chuckle, and tear, after visiting the sites my students took as authoritative. Then in the last year the same site started appearing in many of my students' works cited lists: Wikipedia.

It is not too much to say that student use of Wikipedia has caused problems in the classroom. Students assume it's always true and professor's know it's not. It seems that at least every other week the Chronicle of Higher Education runs a story on the percentage of facts right and wrong on Wikipedia; how these percentages compare to the Encyclopedia Britannica; how some poor student failed because he cited a faulty fact and how many professors are convinced that Wikipedia is the new scourge for students seeking the easy path. Wikipedia is booed as the academic, and moral, equivalent of reading Cliff's Notes instead of the book, only not as accurate.

Reflection on a classroom experience of mine has made me think that Wikipedia actually could be very useful for undergraduate education. I was teaching an Intro to Philosophy course that focused heavily on ancient philosophy. Since there are translations of these works in the public domain I decided we would have no textbook and solely use copies available on the internet. This went smoothly until the site hosting the copy of The Republic we were using crashed. I couldn't find another copy online and so I told my students they would have to buy the book, but it was too late for the college bookstore to order. My students had to buy their own copy from their local bookstores or the internet. There was no use telling them to all get the same copy so I simply told them they had to get a copy with the Stephanus notes (and not everyone even did that). The next class almost everyone had a book and we started reading. While I initially thought it would be a disaster, I came to realize that teaching students how to use Stephanus notes in ancient texts was a good thing.

I was reading my copy to the class and a bashful student raised her hand informing me that her copy did not say the same thing. It didn't. Here the translation was different and several other students registered the same difference. I briefly panicked. How could I teach them The Republic if they had different copies? This was a nightmare, how could I make up an exam without reading all of their translations and making sure each student received an exam that matched their copy. I broke out in a cold sweat at the thought of all the extra work my simple attempt to save them money would cost me. Selfish, I know - but true none-the-less. Then something strange happened. The students with different translations started talking. At first it was only "Really? Show me." and then it evolved into a discussion of whether the difference in translation made any difference: sometimes it did, and sometimes it didn't, but students saw the importance of selecting a translation. They also saw first hand how arguments can change with differences in word choice. Suddenly not every book by the same author was the same. Students started looking for differences and thinking about why they mattered.

Those two weeks were two of the best weeks I've ever spent in the classroom. The experience was spontaneous, and there are always problems with trying to revisit such experiences through planning. Woody Allen found this with lobsters, we often find it with students. I believe this is where Wikipedia presents an opportunity. If we know there are mistakes, tell students to start with Wikipedia and find them. Professors could even give the students a list of approved books for cross-checking purposes. Like the class I had, it gives students an opportunity to see that all references are not created equal. It is because Wikipedia is not perfect, but close enough to make students think it is, that makes it such a good teaching tool.

More on this later ...

Ashton, T.S. (FML)

2006-10-21T11:09:00.000-07:00

Ashton, T.S. The Industrial Revolution. Oxford University press. 1948. 167 pp.

For at least a century (in part under the influence of Karl Marx) most of the economic historians have portrayed the Industrial Revolution as a catastrophe which caused the working class untold misery and brought about a sort of economic and spiritual Age of Darkness. In this remarkable little book Dr. Ashton, professor of economic history at the University of London, with more careful scholarship presents the Industrial Revolution as what it was - an achievement which, through the application of science to industry and the increased use of capital, led not only to a rapid growth of population but to a rise in the real incomes of a considerable section of the working class. Dr, Ashton stresses the intellectual and economic as well as the technical aspects of the movement. (See also his contribution to Capitalism and the Historians, listed under F.A. Hayek.)

BK: OK, it will be a little while before we get to Hayek, but we will get there.

Ashton, E.B. (FML)

2006-10-19T12:16:00.000-07:00

Ashton, E.B. The Fascist: His State and Mind. Putnam. 1937. 320 pp.

"Helps one to understand the system of ideas ruling our enemies and the differences which separate their minds from ours." - F.A. Hayek

The Higher Learning

2006-10-17T20:08:00.000-07:00

"Why is it that the chief characteristic of the higher learning is disorder? It is because there is no ordering principle in it. Certainly the principle of freedom in the current sense of that word will not unify it. In the current use of freedom it is an end in itself. But it must be clear that if each person has the right to make and achieve his own choices the result is anarchy and the dissolution of the whole." Robert Maynard Hutchins, The Higher Learning in America

BK: Hutchins is referring to the system of electives that allows students to choose what courses they will take. His point actually brings up several issues.

The problem is not that freedom is an end in itself. The problem arises from a fundamental tension between liberty and belonging to an institution. What may the institution dictate and what ought to be left to the choices of individuals? This leads to the second issue.

Failure to adequately map out the boundaries between institution and individual can be a disaster. Here students have liberty but do not understand what liberty is; and neither does the institution. Here is where Hutchins is right: Institutions that try to give too much liberty to students find themselves in a quandary. Why should any decision be denied to students, including institutional choices? (This problem also rears its head in shallow understandings of Democracy)The institution cannot allow this. Students do not understand why. Campus unrest ensues because neither the administrators nor students understand the realm and limits of freedom. I submit, the campus unrest of the 60's was a direct result of failure to even try to understand the proper role of liberty. This leads us to the third issue.

Hutchins assumes that freedom is letting students and faculty do whatever they want. This cannot serve as an organizing principle of the higher learning. What could, though, is the principle of freedom understood as the study of individual liberty within and between various institutions. Here what orders the higher learning is a proper understanding of the realm and limits of liberty combined with how it may be legitimately enjoyed. This need not be the entire curriculum, but it could be a powerful unifying element tying together students' earlier theoretical studies with their later choices of a profession. Hutchins' own advocacy of the great books provides no such tie and it comes as no surprise that he thinks professionalism does not belong in the university. Here he is consistent, but he fails to realize that even a curriculum of great books does not really provide a unifying principle. It must be the ideas in those books, and one of those ideas is surely liberty.

Aristotle (FML)

2006-10-15T20:06:00.000-07:00

Aristotle. Politics. 330 B.C. Many editions. 337 pp.

In his introduction to the 1920 Oxford edition (translated by Benjamin Jowett), H.W.C. Davis reminds us that this classic embodies "theories of perennial value, and refutations of fallacies which are always re-emerging." There is a brilliant answer to Plato's proposals to abolish private property and to communize wives and children.

BK: One of my favorite entries. I'm not sure who publishes the series "Many editions" but they certainly have been around for a while.

Both Sides Now

2006-10-12T07:42:00.000-07:00

“These are very difficult cases because they pull at some very fundamental heartstrings,”... . “There’s our belief that employees should be free of discrimination in their work, versus our belief that religious organizations should be free to hire people who best help them fulfill their religious mission, without the intrusion of government.” - Steven C. Sheinberg on the core debate between workers, religious institutions, and the government. "Where Faith Abides, Employees have Few Rights", New York Times, October 9, 2006.

Freedom of Education

2006-10-05T09:40:00.000-07:00

Definitely food for thought from J.S. Mill.

"It is not endurable that a government should, either in law or in fact, have a complete control over the education of the people. To possess such a control, and actually exert it, is to be despotic. A government which can mould the opinions and sentiments of the people from their youth upwards, can do with them whatever it pleases. Though a government, therefore, may, and in many cases ought to, establish schools and colleges, it must neither compel nor bribe any person to come to them; nor ought the power of individuals to set up rival establishments, to depend in any degree upon its authorization. It would be justified in requiring from all the people that they shall possess instruction in certain things, but not in prescribing to them how or from whom they shall obtain it" J.S. Mill, Principles of Political Economy, Book V. Chap 11. sec. 8.

BK: I don't know how Mill, and many others, fail to see the connection here. If government is going to establish schools, require a subject or even give scholarships - it must verify that its objectives have been achieved. This requires standards, which require assessment. Money can only go to authorized recipients - lest the government open its coffers to anyone who asks. Seriously, the only way for the government to ensure it is not being bilked is to have standards and enforce them. This requires that "rival" establishments be authorized to receive funding and that individuals are actually taking the courses government may require.

This is why government aid is a Faustian bargain. If they give the money, they will influence what counts as standards and require reporting. This is the major reason for accreditation and agencies to accredit - eligibility for receipt of federal student aid. Yet, the same argument academics use against market encroachments in academe applies here as well: Those who control the purse strings control a great deal more. Mill is right that government control here is especially dangerous, but apparently people wish to believe that, unlike any other institution on the face of the earth, the government does not care what it gets for its money.

Arendt, Hannah (FML)

2006-10-01T20:05:00.000-07:00

Arendt, Hannah. Origins of Totalitarianism. Harcourt. 1951. 477 pp.

A search by a German-born author and scholar for the deeper roots of anti-semitism, imperialism, and totalitarianism. Virginia Kirkus called it "a highly serious and commanding study." One reviewer objected to it on the ground that "too much of her interpretation is taken from the particular experience of Germany"; and another reviewer on the ground that: "She attempts to give scholarly support to the increasingly widely held dictum that Soviet Communism is nothing but Red fascism."

Anshen, Ruth Nanda (FML)

2006-09-29T21:41:00.000-07:00

Anshen, Ruth Nanda (ed.). Freedom: Its Meaning. Harcourt. 1940. 686pp.

A symposium in which forty-one contributors have expressed their views on what freedom means to them. The volume runs to over a quarter of a million words. The contributions reflect little consistency with each other in viewpoint or philosophy.

BK: Faint praise indeed.

Angell Double Header (FML)

2006-09-26T20:27:00.000-07:00

Angell, Sir Norman. After All: The Autobiography of Norman Angell. Farrar, Straus and Young. 1952. 370 pp.

"Although Sir Norman is wholly unconscious of this, the picture is of a rarely elevated and noble life. Besides the record of that life, this book is enriched by Sir Norman's reflections - veritable little essays in some cases - on a wide variety of topics ... [including] The Incredible Gullibility of Believers in Freedom under Socialism." - Max Eastman, in The Freeman.

Angell, Norman. The Public Mind. Dutton. 1927. 232 pp.

"A stimulating book. ... Its importance to Individualists lies in the emphasis it indirectly gives to the desirability of restricting State action to spheres in which popular passion and prejudice, and the ability of politicians to exploit them can have least effect." - PI.

BK: The capitalizing of State and Individualists in the second review is no accident; it is in the original. I have no idea when this convention passed, but I am sorry it did. It gives an element of style and emphasis without having to italicize or bold the entire word. In fact, used properly, it gives the word a certain Dignity.

The Purpose of Education

2006-09-24T20:29:00.000-07:00

Much maligned, but seldom read, Herbert Spencer on education:

" How to live? - that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general problem which comprehends every special problem is - the right ruling of conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a citizen; in what way to utilize all those sources of happiness which nature supplies - how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of ourselves and others - how to live completely? And this being the great thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the function which education has to discharge; and the only rational mode of judging of any educational course is, to judge in what degree it discharges such function." - Education: Intellectual, Moral and Physical

BK: This is what liberal arts education has forgotten. Colleges struggle to find a mission. Departments focus on their disciplines and denigrate other fields as second class knowledge. This author has done it in his less thoughtful moments. To communicate how our specialties fit into the broader picture, though, is the task for the undergraduate educator. This is the challenge for Liberty Studies as well: to explore how and when liberty is essential for the good life, while acknowledging that it is not the only component of living completely.

Andrews & Angell (FML)

2006-09-22T21:20:00.000-07:00

Andrews, Matthew Page. Social Planning by Frontier Thinkers. Richard R. Smith. 1944. 94 pp.

A Satire on Social Planning and planners by an historical scholar. It consists in large part of quotations from recent writings by so-called "advanced thinkers."

Angell, Norman. The Great Illusion. Putnam. 1911.

Several years before the outbreak of World War I, Norman Angell challenged the then almost universally accepted theory that military and political power give a nation commercial and social advantages. He contended that the wealth of our modern world is founded upon credit and commercial contract which vanishes before an invading host and leaves nothing to reward the conqueror, but involves him in its collapse. His theme, in brief, was that nobody wins a modern war. "It may be doubted whether, within it (sic) entire range, the peace literature of the Anglo-Saxon world has ever produced a more fascinating or significant study." - A.S. Hershey, in American Political Science Review, 1911.

FML: Allen, C.K.

2006-09-21T05:42:00.000-07:00

Allen, C.K. Bureaucracy Triumphant. Oxford University Press. 1931. 156 pp.

"This little collection of essays is highly instructive to both the lawyer and legislator and while its references are solely to the situation as it exists in England, its lesson is one that might well be heard in the United States." - S.H. Hofstadter, in Columbia Law Review

Anderson, Benjamin M. Economics and the Public Welfare. Van Nostrand. 1949. 602 pp.

An economic and financial history of the United States from 1913 to a little beyond the end of World War II. I take the liberty of quoting from my own forward to the book: "[Anderson's] The Value of Money [1917] is one of the classics of American economic writing. ... The present work is destined to take a similar rank among American economic and financial histories. It is already the outstanding economic and financial history for the period it covers. ... Few economic histories have ever interlaced theory and interpretation so completely and successfully with the record of the facts. ... Its sense of drama, its unfailing lucidity, its emphasis on basic economic prinsiples, its recognition of the crucial roles played by oustanding individuals, its realistic detailed description of the disastrous consequences of flouting moral principles or of trying to prevent the forces of the market from operating, combine to give this book a sustained readability seldom found in serious economic writing."

FML: Allen, C.K.

2006-09-19T09:39:00.000-07:00

Allen, C.K. Law and Orders. London: Stevens, 1946. 385 pp.

An Inquiry into the nature and scope of delegated legislation and executive powers in England. "In this scholarly study Dr. Allen, who holds to the liberal view of the state, wrestles with the problem of how a proper balance between the legislative and executive powers in Britain's government can be restored and maintained." Foreign Affairs. The book is valuable for Americans because this problem of balance has become even more serious for us than in Britain.

BK: Funny how old works can become current issues especially with the successful efforts of our current president to create a strong executive. Would GB be Jack McCoy if only he were more erudite? Unfortunately, Jerry Orbach does not star in this version. "In the U.S. political system the people are represented by two distinct branches - the legislative which makes the laws and the executive which enforces them. These are their stories."

John Adams (FML)

2006-09-18T21:21:00.000-07:00

Adams, John. The Political Writings of John Adams. Edited by George A. Peek, Jr. Liberal Arts Press. 1955. 223 pp.

John Adam's enduring title to fame was his grasp of the principles of republican conservatism. He "vindicated with vigor and consistency such basic ideas of the American Constitution as the balanced and limited powers of the government, the right of the minority to protection against the tyranny of the majority and the inseparable connection between liberty and property. ... The heart of the second President's political philosophy is summed up in one brief sentence in his Defense of the American Constitution. 'Power is always abused when unlimited and unbalanced.'" - William Henry Chamberlin, in The Freeman.

The Free Man's Library (FML)

2006-09-12T21:47:00.000-07:00

Recently, I had the good fortune of stumbling across Henry Hazlitt's The Free Man's Library in a used bookstore. I have checked, and the book is in the public domain. In Hazlitt's own words:

"This book is a descriptive and critical bibliography of works n the philosophy of individualism. I have applied the term "individualism" in a broad sense. The bibliography includes books which explain the process and advantages of free trade, free enterprise and free markets; which recognize the evils of excessive state power; and which champion the cause of individual freedom of worship, speech and thought" (p. 1).

Twice a week I will publish a few of the entries just as they are in the book. All entries will be archived under the heading "FML".

I love this book. It's starting point is W.H. Hutt's The Philosophy of Individualism: A Bibliography, published in 1927, with Hazlitt adding references to works published up until the mid 1950s. While many titles are familiar, many more are not. That's what I like. Hazlitt's bibliography provides a treasure map, if you will, to works that are in danger of being forgotten. No doubt, some books are better forgotten but these forgotten works perhaps deserve a second look before being relegated to the dustbin of history.

The first two entries, however, are by no means obscure:

Acton, Lord. Essays on Freedom and Power, Beacon Press. 1948. 452 pp.

Lord Acton (1834-1902) is chiefly remembered today through a single quotation: "All power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely." But he was one of the most deeply learned men of his time, and recognized as few have ever done the true nature and value of liberty. It is, he declared, "not a means to a higher political end. It is itself the highest political end."
His lifelong object was to write a great "History of Liberty," but he immersed himself so deeply in reading and research that he never lived to complete it. Only two essays resulted from all this laborious preparation: "The History of Freedom in Antiquity" and "The History of Freedom in Christianity." Both are included in this collection selected by Gertrude Himmelfarb, who contributes an excellent introduction. In the opinion of F.A. Hayek, the tradition of true individualism is most perfectly represented in the nineteenth century in the work of Alexis de Tocqueville in France and Lord Acton in England.

Acton, Lord. The History of Freedom and Other Essays. Macmillan. 1907. 638 pp.

An earlier collection of Acton's essays.

Tomorrow's question: Would Lord Acton have had a blog?

Connecting Great Books

2006-09-10T20:58:00.000-07:00

In the September 8th, 2006, Chronicle of Higher education, Jonathan Brent tells us that "Freedom Depends on the First Person Singular". This also happens to be the title of his article. In this article Brent recounts teaching a class on Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. The focus of the day's discussion was on Shukhov, a gulag prisoner who had basically most, if not all, of his animal desires satisfied for the day. Brent asked his class what was wrong with this and it took almost an hour for these students to hit on the idea that what was wrong was a lack of freedom and individuality.

What hit me about Brent's article was his surprise that bright students who had taken the college's First Year Seminar and had read "Locke, Rousseau, Kant and other great thinkers in the Western tradition" took an hour to come to this realization. Yet, is it so surprising? If these books are simply read in isolation from each other, then it is no wonder the students took so long to arrive at the idea that freedom may be important. One class meeting discusses natural rights, another the education of the young and the third the Categorical Imperative. Individually these are all reasonable aspects of the texts to teach, and in a survey course that concerns itself with great ideas these are the ones likely to be distilled and conveyed to students. Individually great, they do not tell the student why freedom is important.

This is not a repudiation of the great books, nor is it to say they are the alpha and omega of education. Rather, it is to ask what we want students to learn. If we don't at least ask this question, we will continue to be amazed that students who are reading difficult texts ,with no overarching guide, fail to see any connection between these authors let alone their connection with freedom.

Stay Tuned

2006-08-29T18:28:00.000-07:00

Stay tuned to this blog for information on Liberty in the Curriculum.

Capitalist Virtue

2005-12-11T06:51:00.000-08:00

A good question has been asked below: Besides civility, what are the virtues of Free Enterprise?
Please respond to this post with your answer.

Questions

2005-12-08T04:31:00.000-08:00

If you have any questions that I may be able to answer, respond here and I will try to answer with another posting.

Your Chains

2005-11-15T18:32:00.000-08:00

"... so long as men struggle to stay alive, they'll never produce so little but that the man with the club won't be able to seize it and leave them still less, provided millions of them are willing to submit ..."

In other words, it is your love of life that keeps you working for the looters. Complain all you want, you will still work harder to get ahead. As a result you provide the looters with everything they want but are unable to produce themselves .

This is how they use your love of life to forge the chains to bind you.

Galt and Christ

2005-11-11T21:49:00.000-08:00

I have to wonder how much Rand was using the story of Christ as a foil to make her point. Galt openly says that he does not believe in original sin, and in the book he is the only one free of it. Galt is perfect and without sin. Then, he is betrayed (accidently) by one he loves. They attempt to kill (crucify) him, but in this case salvation depends on him NOT dying - since heaven is to be found here on earth.

To Enter Heaven .... errr ... Atlantis

2005-11-10T15:54:00.000-08:00

The night before Dagny is to leave, Galt tells her:

"You have seen the Atlantis they were seeking ... but one must enter it naked and alone, with no rags from the falsehoods of centuries, with the purist clarity of mind - not an innocent heart, but that which is much rarer: an intransigent mind - as one's only possession and key."

I could not help think of Christ's admonition to the rich man that he had to give everything away to enter the kingdom of heaven. And it is after his refusal that Christ says that it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than a rich man to go to heaven.

What is it that holds Dagny to the world beyond Atlantis?

Fact or Fiction?

2005-11-09T18:46:00.000-08:00

Just when you thought Atlas Shrugged was fiction ....

Christian Science Monitor: Congress grills oil executives about the price of oil and CEO salary. Too bad Congress never holds hearings on its own salaries.

Of course, what sparked the hearings is a six year high in oil prices, forgotten is that no one was holding hearings six years ago when oil was at a 50 year low.

Even better, some are proposing a windfall profit tax that oil companies would have to pay if oil goes over $40 a barrel. One wonders whether this proposal would include subsidies if oil dropped below $20 a barrel.

The article claims that "At issue: How much trust should be placed in free markets? And more pointedly, how free is the market for energy?" The answer - alot more trust than one should place in congress to determine prices.

What is telling is what does not seem to be at issue - The oil companies built the refineries, wells etc. shouldn't the profit be theirs by right? By what right does congress have a claim to any of their profits?

Vote for John Galt

2005-11-08T18:19:00.000-08:00

Tuesday, November 8th, 2005. Today is election day. I doubt Galt would approve of either NY Mayoral candidate. It does make me wonder, though ... Where were the elections in Galt's Gulch?

The Oath

2005-11-07T14:15:00.000-08:00

The oath that Galt, and every other striker, has taken is:

"I swear by my life and my love of it that I will never live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for mine."

What does this mean? Would you take this oath?

Commenting

2005-11-05T07:45:00.000-08:00

When commenting on a post, do not forget that you must scroll to the bottom of the comment page where you need to enter the letters you see at the bottom of the screen. This method of verification provides at least some protection from irrelevant postings. For those of you new to this, to comment just click on the little "comment" link below the posting you wish to write about.

Atlas Shrugged

2005-11-05T07:17:00.000-08:00

For those of you who find your way here, the topic(s) of discussion will be generally The Philosophy of Business, and specifically the books my students are reading - Atlas Shrugged and The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea. Any and all comments relating to these books and questions about class are welcome. Readers are also welcome to post thoughts and ideas on the Idea Exchange bulletin board.

To Test or Not

2005-10-12T21:02:00.000-07:00

As always, first post is a test.